Electrons in Atoms Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Electrons in Atoms - Research Paper Example This paper sought to study electrons in atoms; their history, science and applications. Both case study and descriptive research designs were employed r. Secondary sources were the main data sources used in this study. The first discovery of an electron was made by Sir John Joseph Thompson when he was studying Mysterious rays, today’s cathode rays in 1898 (Richards). Thompson made a very bold suggestion the mysterious rays were made up particles that were smaller than atoms, which he named corpuscles. Thompson further suggested that corpuscles might be the component of all the matter in an atom (AIP). By then the atom was believed to be the smallest indivisible particle of matter; hence the Thompsons theory was controversial until he, together with other scientists and proved it experimentally. Thompson’s suggestion that cathode rays were made of corpuscles later turned to be electrons, tiny, with a negative charge and the fundamental parts of an atom turned to be correct. In the mid-nineteenth century, an experiment of a glass tube with wires implanted in opposite sides, air pumped out, and a high voltage applied was very popular. Lovely glow patterns were made inside the tube. The experiment was improved by a German physicist in 1859, and the fluorescent glow was produced where the cathode light reached the glass. This experiment was a proof that the cathode emitted some kind ray (AIP). Speculations were made by physicists, including Thompson concerning these mysterious rays. Some thought they were waves like light waves while others, including Thompson thought they were particles. More experiments were made. A magnet was observed to push the rays about. Heinrich Hertz, a German Physicist, noted that the mysterious rays were not deflected by an electric field in a cathode ray tube as was expected for charged particles. More confusion engulfed scientists, and more experiments were needed to resolve the uncertainties. Jean Perrin, a French

Two of the Gospels, compared and contrasted Assignment

Two of the Gospels, compared and contrasted - Assignment Example The gospel according to Mathew begins with the genealogy of Jesus. It traces His roots of to King David through Joseph, His father. Jesus had a miraculous conception through the Holy Spirit as Mary conceived before meeting with Joseph. A star guided visitors from the east to visit Him at Bethlehem. Later on when he was two years old, he escaped with his parents to Egypt when King Herod began killing all children who were less than two years of age. He returned from Egypt after Herod died. John the Baptist announced that Jesus would baptize people with fire and the Holy Spirit. John baptized Jesus afterwards he went to the wilderness and fasted for forty days and forty nights. The devil came to tempt Jesus three times after his fasting. However, he overcame these temptations and began his mission. (Johnson 167). The gospel according to Luke begins with the annunciation of the birth of Jesus Christ by angel Gabriel, six months into the pregnancy of Elizabeth. His conception was miracul ous, as Mary did not meet with Joseph before getting pregnant. His birth was at Bethlehem in a manger. A week later, he underwent circumcision in accordance to Jewish customs, and named Jesus. Later on, he underwent purification when presented to the temple for dedication in Jerusalem and met Simeon and Prophetess Anna. At age twelve, he went with His parents to the temple in Jerusalem for the Passover Feast and stayed behind with the Pharisees. John the Baptist baptized Jesus. Afterwards, he went to the wilderness for fasting for forty days and forty nights after which the devil came to tempt Him. He began his work in Galilee, teaching in synagogues where he encountered rejection at His own home in Nazareth (Johnson 167). Write an essay explaining the significance, background, conversion, and ministry of the Apostle Paul. Christianity in the early days got a lot of opposition from the rulers of its time, especially among Romans who were ruling Jews. It brought about numerous change s in spiritual settings of everyone who heard the gospel. This led to confusion in the Roman Empire because most teachings of Christianity condemned socially accepted practices such as corruption and bribery, which were a common feature in the Roman Empire. Jesus ascended to heaven after charging His disciples with the duty of spreading the good news to the Jews and the Gentiles, and across all nations of the world. Romans disliked this confusion and persecuted everyone found spreading the gospel, or claiming to be a Christian, i.e. a follower of Christ. Saul was one of the men who had deep hatred for Christianity. He was an army general and had immense hatred for Christians. He travelled across cities of the world persecuting and killing all the Christians he came across. One day he was on his way to massacre Christians in Damascus when the Lord appeared to him in a flashing light and thunderous voice. The Lord spoke to him and asked him why he was persecuting His people. The brigh t light form of the Lord blinded him for three days where he ate or drank nothing. The Lord gave a dream to Ananias who went to pray for Saul. Saul proceeded to Damascus where he accepted salvation and became a follower of Christ. The scales on his eyes came off and he regained his sight. Saul changed his name to Paul from this day on. He became one of the biggest followers of Christianity, travelled everywhere to preach the gospel and endured all manner of persecution for the sake of the Lord. In fact, he wrote the largest number of books in the bible, i.e. the Pauline Epistles. Based on the principles and tools for interpreting the Bible given in Unit 3 (historical context, literary context, genre, etc.) and the discussion of Paul’s letters in the book and in Unit 9, explain how you

East Asian literature Essay Example for Free

East Asian literature Essay Based on Yasutaka Tsutsui’s â€Å"The Standing Woman†, the power of the collective over that of the individual is positive. This can be surmised based on three points of argumentation which are the main character’s thoughts at the beginning of the story, the old man’s revelation in his conversation with the main character, and the main character’s discussion with his wife. At the beginning of the story, we find the main character who is a writer thinking about the story that he finished. He mentions that the story is â€Å"capable of neither harm nor good†. Since he had spoken this to himself then it must be true. Later on it would be revealed in the story that his wife who he loves so much has been turned to a manpillar by the government. Yet instead of being angry and seeking vengeance, the man even at the start of the story already seems defeated by the very society that persecuted his wife. At the middle of the story, the writer converses with an old man who reveals that he had also been a writer but is now too afraid of persecution to write anything at all. The conversation shows that society has also broken the old man without even needing to arrest him and turn him into a mantree. The old man’s fear of getting exposed to the public and being ridiculed had already overpowered him and these fears came from society because it is the collective society that has the greatest power to ridicule. The last proof comes from the writer’s discussion with his wife. His wife who had once been so proud and strong has been reduced to a yielding subject to society’s whims to a point of not even protesting injustices done to her by drunks. In conclusion, the power of a collective society truly does overwhelm the resolve of any particular member.

Behavioral economics and economic man

Behavioral economics and economic man How Behavioral Economics Rescue Economic Man From The Selfishness Behavioral economics is one single most influential and dynamic area in the current economics. Applying some insights from psychological science(s) to the economic models so as to understand better the economics decision making, the behavioral look has provided new and important ways for the economists to understand why different people make different choices that they make. The purpose of this article therefore is to explain how behavioral economics rescue the economic man from the selfishness in which he finds himself. Economic man is an imaginary perfect rational person who maximizes his/her economic welfare or being and achieves the consumer equilibrium by thinking marginally all the time. The importance of this concept is hinged in the theory of consumer behavior in which real people function such as this fictional entity (Wansink, 2006). On the other hand, economics is a group of ideas and conventions put together by different economists which they accept and use to reason along with. It is mainly a culture of doing things mainly by the economists. Behavioral economics therefore represents the transformation of such culture and it is a field of economics that study how decision-making process influences reached decisions in any organization as well as in any individual (Ainslie, 1992). Neoclassical economics postulates an economic man in any system is the main course of being economic as well as the course of being rational. This economic man is assumed to have good knowledge is different aspects of his surrounding which is not clearly complete (Wansink, 2006). This man is assumed to posses a well organized and a stable system of personal preferences and better kills of calculation on the best action to take so as to make him attain the highest benefits as compared to other people. The axioms of the consumer choices that underlie the economic man ensure that he, the economic man, is minimally rational and consistent in the choices that he makes because he always prefers more of a thing to less and he is able to efficiently allocate his low income among numerous things that he desires so as to enable him achieve a global utility maximum. In a standard welfare model, habits and culture are assumed to take a fixed position or at least change slowly during a given time period so that the cultural context of the Homo economicus/ economic man does not enter the analysis stage. The way tastes and preferences are formed is assumed to be outside the purview of economics because they are not matters of dispute (Stigler and Becker, 1977). According to Veblens (1898), an Economic man is a homogeneous (Uniform) globule of desire full of self interest. Self-interest is defined by different economists as all things that are intangible and tangible to human beings (Solow, 1993) but in practice the real meaning of utility is radically narrowed down to mean the consumption of goods in the market. Any increase in the welfare is equated to the increase in the economic output. The Economists are aware of public goods, intransitivity, Veblen effects and interdependent utilities but all these real-world phenomena are very difficult to include in the general equilibrium framework that currently dominate the economic policy recommendations (Hirsch, 1976). Different subjects explain the economic man in different terms pointing to the same meaning. For instance, biology explains the economic man as a selfish gene while regarding it as a concept that is used to explain the overall selfishness of any living thing especially man and for the direction of evolution. Richard Dawkins with his evolution theory coined this term in his book titled The Selfish Gene (Ainslie, 1992) as a notion of competition, struggle for survival/existence, natural selection and survival of the fittest in his idea of genes as self replicators. In a teleological account, evolution of the biological life is explained as being driven by these replicators, genes. The conclusion drawn here is that the successful replicators are very selfish that otherwise they would not replicate successfully. In order to protect and preserve their replication process, these genes create avenues of self-preservation in form of living things, their bodies and minds. From this type of re asoning, Dawkins (1976, p. 2) concludes that human nature cannot be anything but selfish as its very essence is composed of very selfish units in the name of genes. Later, Dawkins expanded his biological research by considering these genes as self-contained wholes things. But, as Maynard Smith states in Barlow (1991, p. 195), this Selfish Gene does not contain any new facts but rather offers a new world view. The basic to this view is the notion that competition and the virtuousness of the selfish behavior of biological units are rife in ever being. It is from this view that the biologist Ghiselin (1974, p. 247) writes concerning the species and nature that natural economy is competitive from start to the end .This can be seen in the impulses which lead an animal to sacrifice herself for another turn out to have their rationale in gaining more advantage over a third animal especially where it is in her own interest. Therefore, every organism can reasonably be expected to aid her fellow organisms yet if given full chance to act in her own interest, nothing but speed will restrain her from brutalizing, from murdering, from maiming her mate or child (Andrei, 1999). This perspective of the biological world replicates the economic perspective of human nature as being openly self-centered, rational in being consistent in choices they make and characterized by selfishness which is constrained by expediency (Frank, 1988). Strong intellectual thoughts in both economics and biology see the market economy as being full of utility-maximizing individuals without room for cooperation other than for a single individual to gain the immediate advantage over other individuals (Johnson, 2003). With the above explanation, there are three areas that tend to look at the economic man in a bid to get him out of his selfishness. These areas include the neoclassical economics, the human behavior and the behavioral economics. The criticism of these three areas against each other really explains the demerits of the economic man and the associated selfishness to each other. In the neoclassical economics, economics is the study of the way resources are allocated to their uses. In this school of thinking, economics is said to be the study which considers human behavior as a relation between alternative ends and scarce means. Virtually every neoclassical economist is a positive economist though there are a number of positive economists that are not neoclassical in nature (Harbaugh et al, 2002). Therefore, neoclassical economists consider the study of resource allocation as scientific and not a normative study. In addition, a neoclassical economist believes that free markets always bring about efficient resource allocation (Kagel Roth, 1997). With this understanding, neoclassical economists have made a number of assumptions. Depending on the definition that one can prefer, it can be said that economists are more interested in the resource allocation in nature and causes wealth of nations or perhaps something different. Irrespective of all these, all such things depend on the actions and decisions of people (Luce, 2000). Therefore, so as to get started, economists made or make some assumptions about people and about how individuals act and how they decide how to act. However, the economists have not as a rule based these assumptions on the psychological views of human minds. Rather, most of them have started from an assumption that few modern psychologists might support (Dahlquist Kirkpatrick, 2007). This assumption is that human beings/ individuals are highly rational and self-interested/ selfish. Many neoclassical economists assume that human beings make their choices in a way that gives them the best possible advantage (s) especially given the circumstances that they face. Such circumstances includes such things as the prices of the resources, goods and services available, scarce income, limited and localized technology for transforming such resources into finished goods and services, taxes imposed on them by their organizations, regulations by their governments and other objective limitations on the choices that they make. In Strict terms, neoclassical economics does not just assume that real and concrete people are rational and self-interested as it may seem. Rather, many economists assume that the economic systems work as if they consist of the rational and self-interested persons. People exists in all sorts ranging from sneaky and altruistic to smart and dumb but if the average is an individual that is rational and self-interested, then the system most definitely will act as if human beings in general were self-interested and rational (Hersh, 2002). The basis of neoclassical economics assumes that deviations from the rational self-interests are random and therefore will cancel out making the system to act as if every person is rational and self-interested. As a consequence, neoclassical economics studies the economic system that consists of rational, self-interested persons (Luce, 2000). However, it is known that there are some examples of non-self-interested behavior of human beings who for instance give to the church and who sacrifice themselves in other ways and common sense suggests that human beings are often irrational chumps. There are two very issues here to closely scrutinize. The first one is that human beings are at times altruistic. One can not avoid concluding that people sometimes act on ethical values making it hard to see how the selfishness of this majority can cancel out this self-sacrifice of many others (Kagel Roth, 1997). Therefore, people often act on non self interested values but whenever they do so they act on their own values and not of the government or some philosopher(s) or the economist that is observing (Dahlquist Kirkpatrick, 2007). This might be called a rational individualism rather than a rational self interest. What is left then is the rationality if human beings are not always self-interested. A broader neoclassical economics presumes that human beings choose things in a way that best advances their own values, altruistic or self-interested. The critics of the neoclassical economics sometimes argue that economics is an apology for self-interest. We can therefore note the behavioral approachs criticism to the neoclassical economics that man is always selfish and self centered. The behavioral approach indicates that not all people are self centered since many individuals act on behalf of other people (Harrison, 2005). This indicated that it is not true that all people are selfish. Rather, some are and it should not be generalized that all human beings are selfish to conform to the economic man. However, human behavior is not always selfish and behavioral economics rescues economic man from the selfish gene. In other words, the behavioral economics criticizes the neoclassical economics whether people are always rational or not (Luce, 2000). The neoclassical economics is at times criticized for its normative bias against human beings especially on their assumption. In this perspective, it does not lay more focus on explaining the actual economies instead of describing a utopia in which Pareto optimality applies. The assumption that human beings act rationally can be seen as ignoring very important aspects of the human behavior. Many people see the economic man to be very different from real people. Majority of the economists, even contemporary economists, have criticized the model of economic man. Neoclassical economics assumes people to be the lightning calculators of pleasures and pains, who oscillate like the homogeneous globule of desires of happiness under impulses of stimuli which shifts about an area but leaves then intact. Large organizations might come closer to the neoclassical ideal of maximizing profits but this is not necessarily seen as desirable whenever it arises at the expense of negligence of the wider social issues (Fehr Gachter, 2000). The response to this argument is that neoclassical economics is more of a descriptive statement rather than a normative one. It therefore addresses such problems with the concepts of private against those of social utility. Many critics of behavioral economics typically insist on the rationality of the economic agents. They contend that the experimentally observed behavior is not applicable to the market situations as the learning opportunities and competition ensures at a close approximation of the rational behavior. Equally, many others note that the cognitive theories like the prospect theory are models of decision making and not generalized economic behavior hence are only applicable to the sort of once-off decision problems that are presented to experiment the survey respondents. Traditional economists are very skeptical of the survey based techniques which are put to use extensively in the behavioral economics. Economists typically emphasize on the revealed preferences over the stated preferences from the survey in determining the economic value (Fehr Gachter, 2000). Experiments and surveys should be designed very carefully so as to avoid systemic biases and lack of incentive compatibility. Some economists on the other hand dismiss these criticisms claiming that the results are reproduced in various situations and nations which can lead to good theoretical insight. Behavioral economists on the other hand have incorporated these criticisms by focusing more on the field studies as compared to the than lab experiments. Some economists therefore look at this split as the fundamental schism between the experimental economics and the behavioral economics. However, prominent experimental and behavioral economists overlap some techniques and approaches in giving answers to common questions. In addition, many other proponents of the behavioral economics have taken note that neoclassical models many times fail to predict the outcomes in the real world context (Luce, 2000). Behavioral insights can therefore be used to update the neoclassical equations and the economists have noted that these revised models do not only reach similar correct predictions as the traditional models but predicts correctly some outcomes where the traditional models fail. As an economic student, I object to the fact that man is always selfish. This drives to the numerous criticisms of the economic man. Criticisms of this notion that human beings are purely selfish go back to the start of the modern utility theory. Edgeworth (1881), for instance, in his theory of exchange included the term accounting for pure altruism. He stated that people might suppose that an object X with own utility is P tends, in a reflective and calm moment, to maximize his/her benefits from P to P+, where the + is a coefficient of effective sympathy. Equally, Mr. Veblen (1898) criticized the neoclassical concept of human beings as coldly calculating and coolly rational and this is still one most insightful literature among the criticisms of neoclassical theories (Ainslie, 1992). The other early, though neglected, criticism is that of Mr. Georgescu (1954) who stated that the individual utility not only depends on the individual well-being but also the communitys well-being to wh ich the individuals belong. This truly indicates that human beings are not egocentric and self centered but also works for the benefit of the society in which such a person comes from. Many other economists as well as just writers investigating the behavior of the human beings have come up with more criticisms while explaining the behavior of human beings. For instance, Frank (1988) and Hirsch (1976) all emphasized on the social nature of human beings and their decision-making process which is always associated with their behavior. It is true that that a big number of economic models have been developed to give explanation about altruism, charity, bequests and benevolence among human beings and how they exercise them. In doing all these, many economists together with many other social scientists have been quite ingenious in finding the explanations for the intentions for such behavior in self-interest among human beings. The possible selfish motivations or intentions that apparently lead to altruistic behavior include the enlightened self-interest, the pursuit of reputation among people, anticipation of reciprocity from other people and fear inherent in human being s that they will lose whatever little they have and as a consequence they will be faced with shame (Henrich, Henrich, 2008). Further, different explanations indicate that personal utility can be derived from one persons satisfaction or his contribution to it together with the benefits that adherence to the social contract may provide. The motives of altruistic behavior among human being however can be studied in different categories. For instance, from a psychological point of view, two egoistic motives for altruistic behavior can be identified. The first category is based on the social learning and enforcement amongst people while the second category is based on arousal reduction (Fehr Gachter, 2000). However, the theoretical and empirical investigation to the existence of altruism, different economists argue that altruism can also arise from peoples empathic emotions towards others. In some occasions an individual takes the perspective and position of another person that he/she perceives to be in need without feeling distress and helps to reduce his/her need. Given this explanation, one can conclude from numerous similar examples of altruistic behavior on which human behavior is based that moral commitments and economic factors shape each other and evolve and change within a given social environment and structu res (Arnsperger Varoufakis, 2005). Having explained this, one can forget that neoclassical theories insist on the fact that human beings have the selfish gene dominant in its system. This is the one hat is responsible for the selfishness in the economic man. However, there are a number of criticisms of this argument mainly based on the behavioral economics exercise. The selfish gene, just like the economic man, has also come under attack from numerous directions in general. The selfish gene together with its extension known as the extended phenotype has for a long time been criticized based on the fact that phenotype-distinction is not as clear as its proposers supposes. According to the explanations by the extended phenotype ideas, changes in the genes are reflected in the phenotypes and phenotypical effects determines the selection of genetic replicators (Henrich, Henrich, 2008). Therefore, the phenotypical effects preserve or replicate themselves by means of their extended phenotypes. These phenotypical effects may be morphological or behavioral. For example, a phenotypic expression of the beaver genes is the dam it builds. However, the phenotypical transformations are not exclusively triggered or induced by the changes of the genetic replicators but can as well result from the changes in the elements of the environment (Rabin, Loewenstein, Camerer 2003). On a very close examination and scrutiny, the proponents of the selfish gene idea are not dogmatic enough as popularly believed by many people especially the economists. Some people argue that higher properties of life are emergent in virtually all situations. In addition, it is argued that the accepted explanations of causality from genes to culture just the same as from genes to any other products of life, are not heredity alone. Equally, they are not environmental alone. It is mainly the interaction between the two. Therefore, all possible expressions of phenotype are always encoded in genes though particular attributes which express themselves depends on the triggers from the surrounding environment (Dasgupta, 2002). These phenotypic expressions may as well depend on how an individual integrates within a group. The controversy over the selfish gene is very important to the economists and economics in general because of its implication that competition is of much more complicated sort as compared to that which is assumed by the economic man (Fehr Gachter, 2000). This competition is much more complicated as compared to the isolated people competing for the immediate gain. Likewise, cooperation is complicated as compared to a simple tit-for-tat strategy. Not only does the economic mans model fail the test of realism but also fails to offer accurate predictions about the human behavior. Such failures are evident in the recent empirical findings by numerous economists. In the standard theory, the economic man as described by neoclassical economics lead to micro-foundations approach to the economic policy. Macro economies are assumed to operate by the similar rules of constrained optimization which are used to describe individual organizations as well as households together with their people (Varoufakis Hargreaves-Heap, 2004). Normally, a representative human being whose behavior is indicated and outlined by a well-behaved utility function and a representative organization outlined by a well-behaved production function are made use of to model some real-world phenomenon such as the global climate change or foreign trade. Without the assumptions of economic man and perfect competition such optimization models cannot reach a unique and stable equilibrium. Neoclassical models assume a strictly rational behavior in human consumption with constant returns in production and rely on the prices to dynamically adjust demand and supply. In relation to behavioral economics, the existence of pure altruism and other forms of pro-social behaviors has much more implications to the economic policy. The first policy implication is that the impersonal markets are not and not anticipated to be the best vehicles for the expression of human preferences (Fehr Gachter, 2000). Whenever economic decisions do not conform or tally with the axioms of consumer choices, market outcomes are not rational and therefore, there is no any reason to believe that a competitive equilibrium can represent social optimum. In as much as the market restricts choices to individuals then such choices exclude the richness of human behavior (Thaler, 1991). Equally, depending on who among peoples ancestors is considered human, people have been making decisions for many years based on personal interactions, direct negotiations and imposition of rewards and punishments so as to facilitate cooperation. It is however true that people have difficulties in ma king social decisions especially in impersonal markets (Frank, 1988). Even then, the prevailing trend is toward pushing more critical decisions into the market framework. In conclusion, behavioral economics rescues the economic man from the notion that he is selfish. It is true that human being s are always pursuing their self interests and goals given their human nature, but it not true that they are totally engulfed in their selfishness (Wansink, 2006). The neoclassical economics theories explain well about the economic man and his interests but it should not be generalized that human beings are selfish beings ever in the world (Fehr, E. Gachter, 2000). Human behaviors rescue man from the aforesaid selfishness because thee are many other human beings that sacrifice themselves to support other people in their society. This takes them out of the selfness that the neoclassical economics advocate. Human behavior is therefore not always selfish as is can be portrayed by the neoclassical economics (Harbaugh et al, 2002). Many people have been influenced by religion and molded in a way that they value human life and fellow human beings to an extent that even if they are seeking self interests, they go out of their way to help others achieve they needs. For instance, doctors world over might have their intrinsic desire to posses a lot of money but they always help their patients to gain their health so as to continue working for their good. Equally, different countries can only prosper if every person or at least majority of the citizens works for the good of their nation rather than working for their own gain. Should such happen, that nation is doomed to be poor. Therefore, human behavior explained in behavioral economics plays a great role in rescuing the economic man from the selfish gene. References Ainslie, G. (1992). Picoeconomics, London: Cambridge University Press Arnsperger, C., Varoufakis Y. (2005). Most Peculiar Failure: How neoclassical economics turn theoretical failure into academic and political power. Erkenntnis, 59, 157-188. Rabin, M., Loewenstein, G., Camerer, C. (2003). Advances in the Behavioral Economics, New Jersey: Princeton University Press Dasgupta, P. (2002). Modern Economics and its Critics: Models, Realism and Social Construction, London: Cambridge University Press Faruk, G. (2008). The Behavioral economics and the game theory. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition Fehr, E. Gachter, S. (2000). Fairness and Retaliation: Economics of reciprocity. The Journal of the Economic Perspectives, 14, 159 p. 81. Harbaugh, W., Krause, K. Liday, G. (2002). Bargaining by children. Unpublished manuscript: University of Oregon Varoufakis, Y. Hargreaves-Heap, S. (2004). Game Theory: A critical text, London and New York: Routledge Harrison, W. (2005). Advances in Behavioral Economics. Journal of Economic Psychology, 25, 793-795. Henrich, S., Henrich, J. (2008). The Culture and Evolutionary Origin of Cooperation: Kinship, Reciprocity and Ethnicity. London: Oxford University Press Johnson, A. (2003). The Families of a forest: Matsigenka Indians of the Peruvian Amazon. California: University of California. Kagel, H., Roth, E., eds. (1997). The handbook of the experimental economics. New Jersey: Princeton U. P Dahlquist, J., Kirkpatrick, C. (2007). A Complete Resource for the Market Technicians. pp.49 Luce, R. (2000). The Utility of Losses and Gains: Measurement-theoretical and Experimental Approaches. New Jersey: Lawrence Publishers. Hersh, S. (2002). Beyond Fear and Greed: Understanding the behavioral finance and the psychology of investing. London: Oxford University Press Andrei, S. (1999). Inefficient Markets: Introduction to Behavioral Finance. London: Oxford University Press. Smith, V. (2002). The Method in Experiment: A Rhetoric and Reality. Experimental Economics, 5, 91-110. Varoufakis, Y. (1998). Foundations of Economics: A beginners companion, London and New York: Routledge publishers Edgeworth, Y. (1881). Mathematical Psychics. London: L.S.E. Reprint 1934 publishers. Frank, R. (1988). The Passions within Reasons: The Strategic Role of Emotions. New York: Norton Publishers Hirsch, F. (1976). Social Limit to Growth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press Thaler, H. (1991). Quasi Rational Economics. New York: Russell Sage Publishers Foundation. Wansink, B. (2006). A process of Mindless Eating: Why people eat more than they think. New York: Bantam Books publishers

Childhood Field Day Essay -- Autobiography Essay, Personal Narrative

Child Hood Field Day. I thought that must be a hundred degrees, as I waited for Mrs. Cailler, our school principal, to shout into her microphone. â€Å"GO!† I heard, and started to run. Even though it wasn’t a race, I was young, and wanted to zoom around the track like 6th graders could. Lea came up beside me and she was already sweating like crazy. â€Å"I love field day, only I don’t like the hotness† I said, panting. â€Å"You mean the heat, right?† She corrected me, as she always did. We had only gotten half way around the track before I started to wonder why I wanted to do field day. I was too hot, too hot to run, too hot to wear this uniform, it was just too hot out. Soon running became jogging, jogging became walking and walking became just trying to keep myself from stopping and falling asleep right there on the track, with sixth graders --big, scary, and sometimes mean sixth graders. Finally I got to the starting point and collect my first rubber band. This shows that I had done one lap, one hot, tiring, long lap. Again and again, I went around the track. I was sta...

Teen Pregnancy :: Teenage Pregnancy

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  While many teens that engage in pre-marital sex never become pregnant, some are not as fortunate. Teen pregnancy has become all too common in this day and age. Some teens think it will not happen to them and do not use necessary precautions to protect against it. There are several causes for teen pregnancy and the effects can be life changing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Several causes for teen pregnancy are: the need for affection, acceptance, and unprotected sex. One may have a poor home life and look for affection from a peer. The simple desire to feel loved by another person may be a cause for an unexpected pregnancy. A teen may have a low self-esteem and simply be looking for acceptance in the bedroom. However, many teens that have a wonderful, affectionate family and are very confidante are merely looking for the few minutes of pleasure and avoid using protection. As several teens use the excuse that sex feels better with out a condom, an unwanted pregnancy is likely to occur.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One major effect of teen pregnancy is that the child may be raised by a single parent. While most girls are looking for love and acceptance in sex, many guys are looking for the mere pleasure and are not planning on becoming a teen father. The pressures of high school and hanging out with friends may be overwhelming for some teens, so they just leave. Raising a child as teen is difficult, but raising a child alone would be almost impossible.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many teens become overwhelmed with the stresses of high school and raising a baby; therefore, dropping out of school may seem like the best option. Attending school five days a week, studying for classes, and raising a baby would be overwhelming for most teens. One would have to pay for babysitting and many other expenses for the child that a part time job income could not cover. Dropping out of high school to work full time may seem like a great idea at the moment, but the jobs one applies for may be limited because the lack of a high school diploma.

What Is Bibliotheraphy

What is Bibliotherapy? * Bibliotherapy – the use of literature to help people cope with emotional problems, mental illness, or changes in their lives or to produce affective change and promote personality growth and development. * The underlying premise of bibliotherapy is that clients identify with literary characters similar to themselves, an association that helps the clients release emotions, gain new directions in life, and explore new ways of interacting * E. g. Teenage readers may feel relief that they are not the only ones facing a specific problem. They learn vicariously how to solve their problems by reflecting on how the characters in the book solve theirs Some approaches in Bibliotherapy * Traditional bibliotherapy * Tended to be more ‘reactive' * Focused on getting individuals to react positively or negatively to the reading material. * Therapeutic process * More interactive one: the reader becomes part of the unfolding intellectual and emotional process of the story, and in struggling to understand what is being communicated at the deepest levels, the reader responds by making a positive alternation or modification in behavior or attitude. Interactive bibliotherapy * Help them reflect on what they read, such as group discussion and dialogue journal writing. * In clinical bibliotherapy and bibliocounseling * Skilled practitioners use therapeutic methods to help individuals experiencing serious emotional problems. * Developmental bibliotherapy * Classroom teachers are more likely to use this method * Involves helping students in their normal health and development * Advantage – teachers can identify the concerns of their students and address the issues before problems arise. Students can also be guided through predictable stages of adolescence Basic stages in Bibliotherapy Generally, activities in bibliotherapy are designed to: * provide information * provide insight * stimulate discussion about problems * communicate new values and attitudes * create awareness that other people have similar problems * provide realistic solutions to problems Four basic stages: identification, selection, presentation, and follow-up. * First two stages – the clients' needs must be identified, and appropriate books selected to match their particular problems. The books must then be presented carefully and strategically so that the clients are able to see similarities between themselves and the book characters. * Once the clients can identify with the main character, they enter the follow-up stage during which they share what they have gained. * They express catharsis verbally in discussion or writing, or nonverbal means such as art, role-playing, creative problem solving, or self-selected options for students to pursue individually * Once catharsis has occurred, the clients can be guided to gain insight into the problem. Catharsis – the process releasing strong emotions through particular activities or experience ) Benefits and limitations of Bibliotherapy * BENEFITS * Provides the opportunity for the participants to recognize and understand themselves, their characteristics, and the complexity of human thought and behavior. * Promote social development as well as the love of literature in general, and reading in particular. * Reduces feelings of isolation that may be felt by people with problems. * LIMITATIONS * Availability of materials on certain topics Lack of client readiness and willingness to read. * Clients may also project their own motives onto characters and thus reinforce their own perceptions and solutions – participants may be defensive * Facilitators may have limited knowledge of human development and developmental problems, and inadequate knowledge about appropriate literature. * Clients may be unwilling to discuss areas that are uncomfortable * Facilitators may insist on making a point at the client's expense. http://www. cyc-net. org/cyc-online/cycol-0105-biblio. htm l Selection of booksWhen choosing stories for bibliotherapy there are specific criteria : * The child’s emotional and chronological age should be taken into account * The librarian should know the material * It should be related to the child’s circumstances and feelings * Illustrations should be clear and colourful. * Characters should model healthy adaptation patterns * There should be a character suitable for identification. * The hero in the story should also be portrayed realistically, for instance s/he must have feelings such as uncertainty, fear and anger.S/he must portray unacceptable behaviour such as being naughty, while people still accept him/her. * There should be other characters in the story that are more or less the same as those in the client’s situation * The librarian should know the client’s reading ability * In using bibliotherapy with small groups of children, the same principles of book selection * Any books selected will be suited f or all group members. BIBLIOTHERAPY!! THREE STAGES of BIBLIOTHERAPY 1. IDENTIFICATION.The child identifies with a character, a story line, SOMETHING in the book that   catches their attention. This identification (discovery) can be by the child, or staged by the therapist or   teacher. 2. CATHARSIS. The child is able to release emotions when he/she becomes emotionally involved in   the story. The classroom or office provides a safe place for the child to release (in a classroom, make   sure to guard the child's privacy and confidentiality). The child can release any of several ways, such   as discussion, art work, music . . 3. INSIGHT. With the therapist's help, the child can come to possible solutions to their problem. Or   sometimes, there is no solution, but coping strategies can be suggested and goals made. The   book's suggested solution or coping strategies can be used, if appropriate. | BIBLIOTHERAPY  can be done in group settings or with individuals alone. Bo oks that address problems common to childhood can be read   to groups, even when there aren't any apparent problems. Sometimes a group reading can open discussion and reveal issues.While  BIBLIOTHERAPY  is a good way for children to release pent-up emotions, it should not be considered a cure. Deep psychological   problems can't be resolved or even handled in a classroom setting — these need to be addressed in more intense therapy. | HOW TO USE BIBLIOTHERAPY!!!! (yahoo) 1. Identify your children's needs through observation, parent conferences, classwork, official records, etc. 2. Match the problems with the appropriate books. Make sure that the book is appropriate for the child's reading   level and maturity. 3.Decide on the settings and time for the therapy, and how you will introduce it to the student. 4. Design follow-up activities after the reading. 5. Motivate the child with introductory activities. 6. Engage in the reading, viewing, or listening phase. Ask lea ding questions. 7. Take a break for reflection. 8. Introduce follow-up activities: ~retelling of the story ~in-depth discussion of the book ~art activities ~creative writing ~dramatic activities 9. Discussion and possible solution finding. | http://www. catherineshafer. com/biblio. html Developmental Interactive Bibliotherapy Bibliotherapy is generally defined as the use of literature to promote mental health * Bibliotherapy has been found effective for a number of domains, such as attitude change, self-concept development, fear reduction, problem-solving ability, prosocial behavior, values development, and interpersonal relationship. * Bibliotherapy can offer a wealth of resources not only for problem-centered interventions but also for classroom guidance. Children’s Social-Emotional Development * The concept of emotional intelligence has been widespread in recent educational literature. Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and expres s emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth. †(p. 10) * Even in the reading lessons that involve only engaging stories, children can learn about how the characters feel and how the characters perform in response to such feelings. * Children learn these social-emotional skills through various medium, such as, literature, art programs, music, and so on. Lang (1998) suggested that a curriculum of social-emotional development should generally cover a wide range of issues. It should involve a concern for the personal and social development. The Transactional Model of Stress * People also differ in their coping patterns. * Emotion-focused coping – avoidance, minimization, distancing, selective attention, and positive comparisons, are likely to occur when there is nothing that can be done to mod ify harmful, or threatening conditions. * Problem-focused coping – amenable to change. * No single strategy that is considered inherently better than any other. Transactional model suggests that to result in emotions and to cope appropriately with the realities of the situation we are facing, we need to appraise correctly. * the concepts of â€Å"appraisal† and â€Å"coping† to the elementary school students is through children’s literature – pertaining to stressful plots and various forms of coping processes and strategies were selected and analyzed Educational Importance of this Study * School counselors to use literature as a method for nurturing children’s social and emotional development. Facilitate discussions with good quality in interactive bibliotherapy, professional skills including active listening, clarification of content, and reflection of feeling are crucial. * Select quality literature-counselors need to expand their collecti ons in various stories pertaining critical issues to children’s social-emotional development at each stage. * Useful to collaborate with other practitioners, such as media specialists, classroom teachers, librarians, and parents. In addition, further knowledge for selecting children’s literature is especially needed. What Is Bibliotheraphy What is Bibliotherapy? * Bibliotherapy – the use of literature to help people cope with emotional problems, mental illness, or changes in their lives or to produce affective change and promote personality growth and development. * The underlying premise of bibliotherapy is that clients identify with literary characters similar to themselves, an association that helps the clients release emotions, gain new directions in life, and explore new ways of interacting * E. g. Teenage readers may feel relief that they are not the only ones facing a specific problem. They learn vicariously how to solve their problems by reflecting on how the characters in the book solve theirs Some approaches in Bibliotherapy * Traditional bibliotherapy * Tended to be more ‘reactive' * Focused on getting individuals to react positively or negatively to the reading material. * Therapeutic process * More interactive one: the reader becomes part of the unfolding intellectual and emotional process of the story, and in struggling to understand what is being communicated at the deepest levels, the reader responds by making a positive alternation or modification in behavior or attitude. Interactive bibliotherapy * Help them reflect on what they read, such as group discussion and dialogue journal writing. * In clinical bibliotherapy and bibliocounseling * Skilled practitioners use therapeutic methods to help individuals experiencing serious emotional problems. * Developmental bibliotherapy * Classroom teachers are more likely to use this method * Involves helping students in their normal health and development * Advantage – teachers can identify the concerns of their students and address the issues before problems arise. Students can also be guided through predictable stages of adolescence Basic stages in Bibliotherapy Generally, activities in bibliotherapy are designed to: * provide information * provide insight * stimulate discussion about problems * communicate new values and attitudes * create awareness that other people have similar problems * provide realistic solutions to problems Four basic stages: identification, selection, presentation, and follow-up. * First two stages – the clients' needs must be identified, and appropriate books selected to match their particular problems. The books must then be presented carefully and strategically so that the clients are able to see similarities between themselves and the book characters. * Once the clients can identify with the main character, they enter the follow-up stage during which they share what they have gained. * They express catharsis verbally in discussion or writing, or nonverbal means such as art, role-playing, creative problem solving, or self-selected options for students to pursue individually * Once catharsis has occurred, the clients can be guided to gain insight into the problem. Catharsis – the process releasing strong emotions through particular activities or experience ) Benefits and limitations of Bibliotherapy * BENEFITS * Provides the opportunity for the participants to recognize and understand themselves, their characteristics, and the complexity of human thought and behavior. * Promote social development as well as the love of literature in general, and reading in particular. * Reduces feelings of isolation that may be felt by people with problems. * LIMITATIONS * Availability of materials on certain topics Lack of client readiness and willingness to read. * Clients may also project their own motives onto characters and thus reinforce their own perceptions and solutions – participants may be defensive * Facilitators may have limited knowledge of human development and developmental problems, and inadequate knowledge about appropriate literature. * Clients may be unwilling to discuss areas that are uncomfortable * Facilitators may insist on making a point at the client's expense. http://www. cyc-net. org/cyc-online/cycol-0105-biblio. htm l Selection of booksWhen choosing stories for bibliotherapy there are specific criteria : * The child’s emotional and chronological age should be taken into account * The librarian should know the material * It should be related to the child’s circumstances and feelings * Illustrations should be clear and colourful. * Characters should model healthy adaptation patterns * There should be a character suitable for identification. * The hero in the story should also be portrayed realistically, for instance s/he must have feelings such as uncertainty, fear and anger.S/he must portray unacceptable behaviour such as being naughty, while people still accept him/her. * There should be other characters in the story that are more or less the same as those in the client’s situation * The librarian should know the client’s reading ability * In using bibliotherapy with small groups of children, the same principles of book selection * Any books selected will be suited f or all group members. BIBLIOTHERAPY!! THREE STAGES of BIBLIOTHERAPY 1. IDENTIFICATION.The child identifies with a character, a story line, SOMETHING in the book that   catches their attention. This identification (discovery) can be by the child, or staged by the therapist or   teacher. 2. CATHARSIS. The child is able to release emotions when he/she becomes emotionally involved in   the story. The classroom or office provides a safe place for the child to release (in a classroom, make   sure to guard the child's privacy and confidentiality). The child can release any of several ways, such   as discussion, art work, music . . 3. INSIGHT. With the therapist's help, the child can come to possible solutions to their problem. Or   sometimes, there is no solution, but coping strategies can be suggested and goals made. The   book's suggested solution or coping strategies can be used, if appropriate. | BIBLIOTHERAPY  can be done in group settings or with individuals alone. Bo oks that address problems common to childhood can be read   to groups, even when there aren't any apparent problems. Sometimes a group reading can open discussion and reveal issues.While  BIBLIOTHERAPY  is a good way for children to release pent-up emotions, it should not be considered a cure. Deep psychological   problems can't be resolved or even handled in a classroom setting — these need to be addressed in more intense therapy. | HOW TO USE BIBLIOTHERAPY!!!! (yahoo) 1. Identify your children's needs through observation, parent conferences, classwork, official records, etc. 2. Match the problems with the appropriate books. Make sure that the book is appropriate for the child's reading   level and maturity. 3.Decide on the settings and time for the therapy, and how you will introduce it to the student. 4. Design follow-up activities after the reading. 5. Motivate the child with introductory activities. 6. Engage in the reading, viewing, or listening phase. Ask lea ding questions. 7. Take a break for reflection. 8. Introduce follow-up activities: ~retelling of the story ~in-depth discussion of the book ~art activities ~creative writing ~dramatic activities 9. Discussion and possible solution finding. | http://www. catherineshafer. com/biblio. html Developmental Interactive Bibliotherapy Bibliotherapy is generally defined as the use of literature to promote mental health * Bibliotherapy has been found effective for a number of domains, such as attitude change, self-concept development, fear reduction, problem-solving ability, prosocial behavior, values development, and interpersonal relationship. * Bibliotherapy can offer a wealth of resources not only for problem-centered interventions but also for classroom guidance. Children’s Social-Emotional Development * The concept of emotional intelligence has been widespread in recent educational literature. Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and expres s emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth. †(p. 10) * Even in the reading lessons that involve only engaging stories, children can learn about how the characters feel and how the characters perform in response to such feelings. * Children learn these social-emotional skills through various medium, such as, literature, art programs, music, and so on. Lang (1998) suggested that a curriculum of social-emotional development should generally cover a wide range of issues. It should involve a concern for the personal and social development. The Transactional Model of Stress * People also differ in their coping patterns. * Emotion-focused coping – avoidance, minimization, distancing, selective attention, and positive comparisons, are likely to occur when there is nothing that can be done to mod ify harmful, or threatening conditions. * Problem-focused coping – amenable to change. * No single strategy that is considered inherently better than any other. Transactional model suggests that to result in emotions and to cope appropriately with the realities of the situation we are facing, we need to appraise correctly. * the concepts of â€Å"appraisal† and â€Å"coping† to the elementary school students is through children’s literature – pertaining to stressful plots and various forms of coping processes and strategies were selected and analyzed Educational Importance of this Study * School counselors to use literature as a method for nurturing children’s social and emotional development. Facilitate discussions with good quality in interactive bibliotherapy, professional skills including active listening, clarification of content, and reflection of feeling are crucial. * Select quality literature-counselors need to expand their collecti ons in various stories pertaining critical issues to children’s social-emotional development at each stage. * Useful to collaborate with other practitioners, such as media specialists, classroom teachers, librarians, and parents. In addition, further knowledge for selecting children’s literature is especially needed.